Learning Organization Essay

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY atomic number 18 proliferating as corporations seek to part themselves and gain an edge. Unfortunately, however, failed programs far outnumber achieveres, and rise stations ride out low. Thats beca do close companies progress to failed to persist a basic truth. Before people and companies can improve, they first-class honours degree must learn. And to do this, they need to look beyond rhetoric and lofty philosophy and management on the fundamentals. Three critical issues must be addressed ahead a association can truly become a scholarship organization, writes Harvard Business School professor David Garvin.First is the question of meaning a well-grounded, effortless(prenominal)-to-apply commentary of a schooling organization. Second comes management cle arr operational levellines for practice. Fin eachy, better tools for measurement can assess an organizations rate and direct of acquire. Using these three Ms as a fashion model, Garvin defines l earning organizations as skillful at quin main activities systematic enigma solving, experimentation with innovative approaches, learning from erstwhile(prenominal) experience, learning from the high hat practices of disparates, and transferring k straightawayadaysledge promptly and efficiently finishedout the organization.And since you cant manage something if you cant measure it, a complete learning audit is a must. That includes measure cognitive and behavioral changes as well as tangible avails in pass ons. No learning organization is built overnight. Success comes from c arfully polite attitudes, commitments, and management offshootes that accrue slowly and steadily. The first step is to foster an surroundings conducive to learning. par e very(prenominal)el of latitude Devices, Chaparral Steel, Xerox, GE, and other companies provide enlightened simulations. day-and-night IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMSCONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS argon sprouting up completely over a s organizations strive to better themselves and gain an edge. The topic tend is vast and varied, and sometimes it seems as though a program a month is needed just to keep up. Unfortunately, failed programs far outnumber successes, and improvement rates remain distressingly low. Why? Because most companies put one over failed to grasp a basic truth. Continuous improvement requires a commitment to learning. How, by and by whole, can an organization improve without first learning something cutting? piss a task, introducing a product, and reengineering a process whole require see the world in a bracing light and acting accordingly. In the absence of learning, companies-and individuals -simply replicate old practices. Change remains cosmetic, and improvements argon every fortuitous or swindle-lived. A a few(prenominal) farsighted executives Ray Stata of Analog Devices, Gor take Forward of Chaparral Steel, Paul Allaire of Xerox-have recognized the affair between learning a nd continuous improvement and have begun to re way their companies around it.Scholars too have jumped on the bandwagon, beating the drum for learning organizations and familiarity-creating companies. In rapidly changing businesses standardized semiconductors and consumer electronics, these ideas be fast taking hold. Yet condescension the supporting signs, the topic in large part remains murky, confused, and difficult to penetrate. Meaning, Management, and bar Scholars are partly to blame. Their discussions of learning organizations have often been reverential and utopian, modify with near mystical margininology.Paradise, they would have you believe, is just around the corner. Peter Senge, who popularized learning organizations in his book The Fifth Discipline, described them as addresss where people continu tout ensembley expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where modernistic and expansive patterns of sentiment are nurtured, where collective a spiration is set free, and where people are continu eachy learning how to learn together. To achieve these ends, Senge suggested the use of five comp atomic number 53nt technologies systems thinking, individualised mastery, mental models, share vision, and group learning.In a similar spirit, Ikujiro Nonaka characterized association-creating companies as places where inventing spick-and-span knowledge is non a specialized activity it is a counsel of behaving, indeed, a way of being, in which everyone is a knowledge acetifyer. Nonaka suggested that companies use metaphors and organisational redundancy to focus thinking, encourage dialogue, and make tacit, instinctively unsounded ideas hard-core. Sound idyllic? Absolutely. Desirable? Without question. however does it provide a frame feed for action? Hardly. The recommendations are far too abstract, and too umpteen questions remain unanswered.How, for example, will directors know when their companies have become learnin g organizations? What concrete changes in behavior are ask? What policies and programs must be in place? How do you get from here to there? Most discussions of learning organizations fragility these issues. Their focus is high philosophy and grand themes, sweeping metaphors rather than the juicy details of practice. Three critical issues are left unresolved in so far each is essential for effective implementation. First is the question of meaning. We need a plausible, well-grounded definition of learning organizations it must be actionable and easy to apply.Second is the question of management. We need clearer guidelines for practice, filled with operational advice rather than high aspirations. And third is the question of measurement. We need better tools for assessing an organizations rate and level of learning to ensure that gains have in fact been made. one time these three Ms are addressed, managers will have a firmer ass for launching learning organizations. Without this groundwork, progress is un identically, and for the elementaryst of reasons. For learning to become a purposeful corporate goal, it must first be understood. What Is a Learning giving medication?Surprisingly, a clear definition of learning has proved to be puzzleatic over the years. Organizational theorists have studied learning for a long time the ac companionshiping quotations suggest that there is still sizable discord (see Definitions of Organizational Learning on page 77). Most scholars view organizational learning as a process that unfolds over time and link it with knowledge acquisition and improved performance. only when they differ on other important matters. Some, for example, believe that behavioral change is required. for learning others insist that cutting ways of thinking are enough.Some cite information touch on as the mechanism through which learning tugs place others propose-shared insights, organizational routines, level come to memo. And some think t hat organizational learning is common, while others believe that flawed, self-seeking interpretations are the norm. How can we discern among this cacophony of voices yet build on earlier insights? As a first step, consider the following definition A learning organization is an organization skilled at creating, acquiring and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behavior to reflect saucily knowledge and insights.This definition begins with a simple truth new ideas are essential if learning is to take place. Sometimes they are created de novo, through flashes of insight or creativity at other times they arrive from international the organization or are communicated by knowledgeable insiders. Whatever their source, these ideas are the trigger for organizational improvement. But they can non by themselves create a learning organization. Without accompanying changes in the way that work gets through with(p), only the potential for improvement exists.This is a surprisingly sti ff test for it rules out a number of patent candidates for learning organizations. umpteen universities fail to qualify, as do many consulting firms. Even General Motors, despite its recent efforts to improve performance, is found deficiencying. All of these organizations have been effective at creating or acquiring new knowledge only if notably less successful in applying that knowledge to their suffer activities. Total quality management, for example, is now taught at many business schools, yet the number using it to guide their own decision making is very small.Organizational consultants advise clients on social dynamics and small-group behavior but are notorious for their own infighting and factionalism. And GM, with a few exceptions (like Saturn and NUMMI), has had miniature success in revamping its manufacturing practices, even though its managers are honests on lean manufacturing, JIT product, and the requirements for improved quality of work life. Organizations that do pass the definitional test Honda, Corning, and General Electric come sprightlyly to mind have, by contrast, become adept at translating new knowledge into new ways of behaving.These companies actively manage the learning process to ensure that it move ons by material body rather than by chance. Distinctive policies and practices are responsible for their success they form the building blocks of learning organizations. Building Blocks Learning organizations are skilled at five main activities systematic problem solving, experimentation with new approaches, learning from their own experience and past history, learning from the experiences and best practices of others, and transferring knowledge quick and efficiently throughout the organization.Each is accompanied by a distinctive mind-set, tool kit, and pattern of behavior. Many companies practice these activities to some degree. But few are consistently successful because they rely largely on happenstance and isolated examp les. By creating systems and processes that support these activities and integrate them into the fabric of unremarkable operations, companies can manage their learning more than effectively. 1. Systematic problem solving. This first activity rests heavily on the philosophy and methods of the quality movement.Its underlying ideas, now blanket(a)ly accepted, include Relying on the scientific method, rather than guesswork, for diagnosing problems (what Deming calls the Plan, Do, Check, human activity cycle, and others refer to as hypothesis-generating, hypothesis interrogatory techniques). Insisting on data, rather than assumptions, as under posit for decision making (what quality practitioners call fact-based management). Using simple statistical tools (histograms, Pareto charts, correlations, cause-and-effect diagrams) to organize data and draw inferences.Most learning programs focus primarily on problem solving techniques, using exercises and practical examples. These tools are relatively straightforward and easily communicated the necessary mind-set, however, is more difficult to establish. accuracy and precision are essential for learning. Employees must therefore become more disciplined in their thinking and more attentive to details. They must continually ask, How do we know thats true? , recognizing that close enough is not good enough if real learning is to take place.They must labor beyond obvious symptoms to assess underlying causes, often collect tell apart when conventional wisdom says it is unnecessary. Otherwise, the organization will remain a captive of gut facts and sloppy reasoning, and learning will be stifled. Xerox has know this approach on a companywide scale. In 1983, older managers launched the companys Leadership Through Quality initiative since and so, all employees have been happy in small-group activities and problem-solving techniques. Today a six-step process is used for virtually all decisions (see Xeroxs Problem-S olving Process).Employees are provided with tools in quatern areas generating ideas and collecting information (brainstorming, interviewing, surveying) reaching consensus (list reduction, rating forms, weighted voting) analyzing and displaying data (cause-andeffect diagrams, force-field analysis) and forgening actions (flow charts, Gantt charts). They accordingly practice these-tools during training sessions that last several days. Training is presented in family groups, members of the corresponding department or business-unit squad, and the tools are applied to real problems facing the group.The result of this process has been a common vocabulary and a consistent, companywide approach to problem solving. Once employees have been trained, they are expected to use the techniques at all determineings, and no topic is off limits. When a high-level group was organize to review Xeroxs organizational structure and suggest alternatives, it industrious the very similar process and t ools. 2. Experimentation. This activity involves the systematic attempting for and testing of new knowledge. Using the scientific method is essential, and there are obvious parallels to systematic problem solving.But unlike problem solving, experimentation is unremarkably motivated by opportunity and expanding horizons, not by current difficulties. It takes cardinal main forms current programs and one-ofa-kind demonstration projects. Ongoing programs normally involve a continuing serial publication of small experiments, designed to produce incremental gains in knowledge. They are the mainstay of most continuous improvement programs and are specially common on the shop floor. Corning, for example, experiments continually with diverse raw materials and new formulations to increase yields and provide better grades of glass.Allegheny Ludlum, a specialty steelmaker, regularly examines new rolling methods and improved technologies to raise productivity and reduce costs. Successful on going programs share several characteristics. First, they work hard to ensure a loaded flow of new ideas, even if they must be imported from outside the organization. Chaparral Steel sends its first-line supervisors on sabbaticals around the globe, where they visit academic and patience leaders, develop an reason of new Xeroxs Problem-Solving Process gradeQuestions to be Answered What do we want to change? Expansion/ Divergence a great deal of problems for consideration Contraction/ Convergence One problem statement, one coveted state concord upon Whats Next to Go to the Next graduation Identification of the gap Desired state described in evident terms Key causes documented and ranked 1. Identify and select problem 2. Analyse Problem Whats preventing us from reaching the desired state? How could we make the change? Whats the best way to do it? scads of potential causes set.Key causes identified and verified 3. Generate potential solutions 4. strike and plan the solution rafts of ideas on how to solve the problem Lots of criteria for evaluating potential solutions. Lots of ideas on how to implement and rate the selected solution say-so solutions clarified Criteria to use for evaluating solution agreed upon Implementation and evaluation plans agreed upon Implementation of agreed-on contingency plans (if necessary) Effectiveness of solution agreed upon Continuing problems (if any) identified Solution List.Plan for making and monitoring the change Measurement criteria to evaluate solution effectiveness 5. Implement the solution Are we following the plan? Solution in place 6. Evaluate the solution How well did it work? Verification that the problem is solved, or Agreement to address continuing problems work practices and technologies, then bring what theyve learned back to the company and apply it to workaday operations. Inlarge part as a result of these initiatives, Chaparral is one of the five lowest cost steel plants in the world.GEs have-to doe with Program originally sent manufacturing managers to Japan to believe factory innovations, such(prenominal) as quality circles and kanban cards, and then apply them in their own organizations at present Europe is the destination, and productivity improvement practices the target. The program is one reason GE has demonstrateed productivity gains averaging nearly 5% over the last four years. Successful ongoing programs also require an incentive system that favors encounter taking. Employees must feel that the benefits of experimentation exceed the costs otherwise, they will not participate.This creates a difficult challenge for managers, who are trapped between both perilous extremes. They must maintain account top executive and control over experiments without crushing creativity by unduly penalizing employees for failures. Allegheny Ludlum has perfected this juggling act it keeps expensive, high-impact experiments off the scorecard used to evaluate managers but requires pri or approvals from four of age(p) vice presidents. The result has been=a history of productivity improvements annually avenging 7% to 8%.Finally, ongoing programs need managers and employees who are trained in the skills required to perform and evaluate experiments. These skills are seldom intuitive and must normally be learned. They cover a broad sweep statistical methods, like design of experiments, that efficiently compare a large number of alternatives graphical techniques, like process analysis, that are essential for redesigning work flows and creativity techniques, like story scorecarding and role playing, that keep novel ideas flowing. The most effective training programs are tightly cogitate and feature a small set of techniques spare to employees needs.Training in design of experiments, for example, is useful for manufacturing engineers, while creativity techniques are well suited to organic evolution groups. Demonstration projects are commonly large and more complex than ongoing experiments. They involve holistic, system wide changes, introduced at a single site, and are often undertaken with the goal of developing new organizational capabilities. Because these projects represent a sharp break from the past, they are usually designed from scratch, using a clean slate approach.General Foodss Topeka plant, one of the first high commitment work systems in this country, was a pioneering demonstration project initiated to introduce the idea of self-managing teams and high levels of prole autonomy a more recent example, designed to rethink small-car development, manufacturing, and sales, is GMs Saturn Division. Demonstration projects share a number of distinctive characteristics They are usually the first projects to embody principles and approaches that the organization hopes to adopt later on a larger scale.For this reason, they are more transitional efforts than endpoints and involve huge learning by doing. Mid-course corrections are common. They implicitly establish policy guidelines and decision rules for later projects. Managers must therefore be sensitive to the precedents they are setting and must send strong signals if they expect to establish new norms. They often encounter severe tests of commitment from employees who wish to see whether the rules have, in fact, changed. They are normally developed by strong multifunctional teams reporting direct to senior management.(For projects targeting employee involvement or quality of work life, teams should be multilevel as well. ) They tend to have only throttle impact on the rest of the organization if they are not accompanied by explicit strategies for transferring learning. All of these characteristics appeared in a demonstration project launched by Copeland Corporation, a highly successful compressor manufacturer, in the mid-1970s. Matt Diggs, then the new CEO, valued to transform the companys approach to manufacturing. Previously, Copeland had machined and assembled all products in a single facility Costs were high, and quality was marginal.The problem, Diggs mat, was too much complexity. At the outset, Diggs assigned a small, multifunctional team the task of designing a focused factory dedicated to a narrow, freshly developed product line. The team reported directly to Diggs and took three years to complete its work. Initially, the project work out was $10 million to $12 million that figure was repeatedly rewrite as the team found, through experience and with Diggss prodding, that it could achieve melodramatic improvements. The final investment, a total of $30 million, yielded unanticipated breakthroughs in reliableness testing, automatic tool adjustment, and programmable control.All were achieved through learning by doing. The team set additional precedents during the plants start-up and early operations. To dramatize the magnificence of quality, for example, the quality manager was appointed second-in-command, a significant move upward. The same reporting relationship was used at all subsequent plants. In addition, Diggs urged the plant manager to ramp up slowly to full production and resist all efforts to proliferate products. These instructions were unusual at Copeland, where the selling department normally ruled.both directives were quickly tested management held firm, and the implications were felt throughout the organization. Manufacturings stature improved, and the company as a total recognized its competitive contribution. One chancer commented, Marketing had always race the company, so they couldnt believe it. The change was visible at the highest levels, and it went chain reactor hard. Once the first focused factory was running smoothly -it seized 25% of the market in cardinal years and held its edge in dependability for over a decade-Copeland built four more factories in quick succession.Diggs assigned members of the initial project to each factorys design team to ensure that early l earnings were not lost these people later rotated into operating assignments. Today focused factories remain the cornerstone of Copelands manufacturing strategy and a continuing source of its cost and quality advantages. Whether they are demonstration projects like Copelands or ongoing programs like Allegheny Ludlums, all forms of experimentation seek the same end moving from superficial knowledge to deep understanding. At its simplest, the distinction is between well-read how things are done and knowing why they occur.Knowing how is partial knowledge it is rooted in norms of behavior, standards of practice, and settings of equipment. Knowing why is more fundamental it captures underlying causeand-effect relationships and accommodates exceptions, adaptations, and unforeseen events. The ability to control temperatures and pressures to align grains of silicon and form silicon steel is an example of knowing how understanding the chemical and physical process that produces the alignmen t is knowing why. Further distinctions are possible, as the insert Stages of Knowledge suggests.Operating knowledge can be arrayed in a hierarchy, moving from limited understanding and the ability to make few distinctions to more complete understanding in which all contingencies are anticipated and controlled. In this context, experimentation and problem solving foster learning by pushing organizations up the hierarchy, from overthrow to higher stages of knowledge. 3. Learning from past experience. Companies must review their successes and failures, assess them systematically, and record the lessons in a form that employers find open and accessible.One expert has called t9is process the Santayana Review, citing the famous philosopher George Santayana, who coined the phrase Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. Unfortunately, too many managers today are indifferent, even hostile, to the past, and by impuissance to reflect on it, they let valuable knowledge escape. A study of more than 150 new products concluded that the knowledge gained from failures is often instrumental in achieving subsequent successes. In the simplest terms, failure is the ultimate teacher. IBMs 360 reckoner series, for example, one of the most popular and profitable ever built, was based on the technology of the failed Stretch computer that preceded it. In this eccentric person, as in many others, learning occurred by chance rather than by careful planning. A few companies, however, have established processes that require their managers to periodically think intimately the past and learn from their mistakes. Boeing did so immediately after its difficulties with the 737 and 747 plane programs. Both planes were introduced with much fanfare and also with serious problems.To ensure that the problems were not repeated, senior managers commissioned a high-level employee group, called Project Homework, to compare the development processes of the 737 and 747 with tho se of the 707 and 727, two of the companys most profitable planes. The group was asked to develop a set of lessons learned that could be used on future projects. after(prenominal) working(a) for three years, they produced hundreds of recommendations and an inch-thick booklet. Several members of the team were then transferred to the 757 and 767 start-ups, and guided by experience, they produced the most successful, error-free launches in Boeings history.Other companies have used a similar retrospective approach. Like Boeing, Xerox studied its product development process, examining three troubled products in an effort to understand why the companys new business initiatives failed so often. Arthur D. Little, the consulting company, focused on its past successes. Senior management invited ADL consultants from around the world to a two-day jamboree, featuring booths and presentations documenting a wide range of the companys most successful practices, publications, and techniques.Britis h fossil oil went even march on and established the post-project appraisal unit to review major investment projects, write up case studies, and derive lessons for planners that were then interconnected into revisions of the companys planning guidelines. A five-person unit reported to the board of directors and reviewed six projects annually. The bulk of the time was spent in the field interviewing managers. This attribute of review is now conducted regularly at the project level. At the embrace of this approach, one expert has observed, is a mind-set that enables companies to recognize the value of juicy failure as contrasted with unproductive success. A productive failure is one that leads to insight, understanding, and thus an addition to the commonly held wisdom of the organization. An unproductive success occurs when something goes well, but nobody knows how or why. IBMs legendary founder, Thomas Watson, Sr. , plain understood the distinction well. Company lore has it t hat a young manager after losing $10 million in a risky risk was called into Watsons office. The young man, thoroughly intimidated, began by saying, I guess you want my resignation. Watson replied, You cant be serious. We just spent $10 million educating you. Fortunately, the learning process need not be so expensive. object lesson studies and post-project reviews like those of Xerox and British Petroleum can be performed with little cost other than managers time. Companies can also enlist the help of ability and students at local colleges or universities they bring fresh postures and view internships and case studies as opportunities to gain experience and increase their own learning. A few companies have established computerized data banks to speed up the learning process.At Paul Revere Life Insurance, management requires all problem-solving teams to complete short registration forms describing their proposed projects if they hope to qualify for the companys award program. Th e company then enters the forms into its computer system and can immediately retrieve a listing of other groups of people who have worked or are working on the topic, along with a contact person. Relevant experience is then just a telephone call away. 4. Learning from others. Of course, not all learning comes from reflection and self-analysis.Sometimes the most powerful insights come from looking for outside ones immediate environment to gain a new perspective. Enlightened managers know that even companies in completely different businesses can be fertile sources of ideas and catalysts for creative thinking. At these organizations, enthusiastic acceptance is replacing the not invented here syndrome. Milliken calls the process SIS, for Steal Ideas Shamelessly the broader term for it is benchmarking. According to one expert, benchmarking is an ongoing investigation and learning experience that ensures that best industry practices are uncovered, analyzed, adopted, and implemented. Th e greatest benefits come from studying practices, the way that work gets done, rather than results, and from involving line managers in the process. Almost anything can be benchmarked. Xerox, the plans creator, has applied it to billing, warehousing, and automated manufacturing. Milliken has been even more creative in an inspired moment, it benchmarked Xeroxs approach to benchmarking. Unfortunately, there is still considerable confusion about the requirements for successful benchmarking. Benchmarking is not industrial tourism, a series of ad hoc visits to companies that have received favorable publicity or win quality awards.Rather, it is a disciplined process that begins with a thorough search to identify best-practice organizations, continues with careful study of ones own practices and performance, progresses through systematic site visits and interview and concludes with an analysis of results, development of recommendations, and implementation. While timeconsuming, the proces s need not be terribly expensive AT&Ts Benchmarking Group estimates that a moderate-sized project takes four to six months and incurs due costs of $20,000 (when personnel costs ax included, the figure is three to four times higher).Bench marking is one way of gaining an outside perspective another, equally fertile source of ideas is customers. Conversations with customers invariably stimulate learning they are, after all, experts in what they do. Customers can provide up-to-date product information, competitive comparisons, insights into changing preferences, and immediate feedback about service and patt ern of use. And companies need these insights at all levels, from the executive suite to the shop floor. At Motorola, members of the Operating and Policy Committee, including the CEO, meet personally and on a regular basis with customers.At Worthington Steel, all machine operators make periodic, unescorted trips to customers factories to discuss their needs. Sometimes customers can t discourse their needs or remember even the most recent problems they have had with a product or service. If thats the case, managers must observe them in action. Xerox employs a number of anthropologists at its Palo Alto Research concentre to observe users of new document products in their offices. Digital Equipment has developed an synergetic process called contextual inquiry that is used by software engineers to observe users of new technologies as they go about their work.Milliken has created first-delivery teams that accompany the first freightage of all products team members follow the product through the customers production process to see how it is used and then develop ideas for further improvement. Whatever the source of outside ideas, learning will only occur in a receptive environment. Managers cant be justificatory and must be open to criticism or bad news. This is a difficult challenge, but it is essential for success.Companies that approach customers assuming th at we must be right, they have to be wrong or visit other organizations accredited that they cantteach us anything seldom learn very much. Learning organizations, by contrast, cultivate the art of open, attentive listening. 5. Transferring knowledge. For learning to be more than a local affair, knowledge must spread quickly and efficiently throughout the organization.Ideas carry maximum impact when they are shared broadly rather than held in a few hands. A categorisation of mechanisms spur this process, including written, oral, and visual reports, site visits and tours, personnel rotation programs, education and training programs, and standardization programs. Each has distinctive strengths and weaknesses.Reports and tours are by far the most popular mediums. Reports serve many purposes they summarize findings, provide checklists of dos and donts, and describe important processes and events. They cover a multitude of topics, from benchmarking studies to accounting conventions to n ewly discovered marketing techniques. Today written reports are often supplemented by videotapes, which offer greater immediacy and fidelity. Tours are an equally popular direction of transferring knowledge, especially for large, multidivisional organizations with multiple sites.